Search and Rescue Disciplines
Air Rescue
PHOTO: ERT SAR on Humanitarian Air Operations - Afghan - Pakistan border
SAR involving planes, helicopters etc. and air observers or even parachutists and winch-men. It involves the use of any aircraft to access and assist or rescue / recover victims and provide medical aid. Specialist military units do train exclusively to do AIR RESCUE but so do other teams as a part of their duties such as Air Medics or Coastguard or Navy winch-operators. That commonly includes helicopters and fixed wing.
Air Sea Rescue
Air Sea Search and Rescue usually involving the close coordination of RAF or Navy and the Coastguard as well as combined efforts with groups like the RNLI (Royal National Lifeboat Institution) on the coast.
Alpine Search and Rescue
Search and Rescue relating to, or characteristic of the Alps (but not necessarily there) or their inhabitants and relating to high mountains (often snow capped) as seen in ski resorts. This form of specialised SAR not only contends with everything from avalanche rescue and search and a very unforgiving environment but also the constant threat and risk to the rescuer. Compare with Snow and Ice Rescue which also refers to responding in similar terrain and unique rescues like survival in the extreme cold or Crevasse Rescue (Crevasse rescue is the challenging process of retrieving someone from a crevasse in an ice glacier.)
Canine Search and Rescue / “K-9” / Dog SAR
Search and Rescue using Air scenting, Tracking, Trailing (etc.) dogs. Dogs are used in many different capacities and in many specialist SAR areas including Mountain, Ground, Wilderness, USAR (from rubble piles and Collapsed Structures) and even Snow and Water. Some dogs are also being trained for Human Remains Detection (HRD) or cadaver recover which strictly speaking many say is not a “SAR” activity but a related one.
Cave (Search and) Rescue
Cave SAR is the specialised form of Search and Rescue from the physical structure and environment of caves, subterranean areas and similar confined spaces. By some - it is often thought of as a specialised form of Mountain SAR or Wilderness SAR in which injured, trapped or lost cave explorers are medically stabilised, treated and transported from various cavernous and subterranean environments. Training includes navigation, confined space, rope work, stabilization, patient transfer and self rescue.
Coastal Search and Rescue
Coastal Search and Rescue usually involves many types of Search and Rescue in the land and water along the coast. This includes the littoral areas and including cliffs and shorelines by and actually in the water. Therefore it includes the use of aircraft / helicopters, surface boats and submarine vessels especially if it involves the littoral areas and continental shelf.
Combat SAR
Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) is also often synonymous with Personnel Recovery (PR) operations and involves the deployment of specialist military units in theatre. CSAR consists of operations carried out to retrieve, rescue and provide assistance to downed aircrews or allies behind enemy lines. CSAR missions generally have the mission's aircrews well armed as they cross into enemy territory and often well trained medically. The US seem particularly good and adept at this with dedicated military units for this purpose.
Combat SAR operations can be additionally dangerous and complicated due to the nature or deliberate hazards and threats against the rescuers to not achieve their missions of rescuing their lost or injured and compromised in a territory they want to get out of as they often take place in enemy territory or contested areas. As always, time is very limited and knowledge of the situation or current sitreps on the ground may be hard to obtain. The decision to conduct a search and rescue operation in unfriendly territory and under uncertain conditions is difficult.
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PHOTO: U.S. Air Force pararescuemen Senior Airman Corey Farr (right), and Staff Sgt. Jeremy Diola (center), and Senior Master Sgt. Michael Fleming of the 66th Expeditionary Rescue Squadron pull security after exiting an HH-60G Pave Hawk during an operational training exercise in Iraq on Sept. 19, 08. |
I was so impressed at their combination of SF (Special Forces) training, ability to work in so many types of hazardous terrain combined with their military skills and paramedic ability to treat the wounded in situ or stabilise them in a pre-hospital environment with very advance medical adjuncts. We have had the pleasure or working with and deploying with the PJs on operations, more than once. They are a very professional, knowledgeable and highly trained group. Extremely impressive and professional were all fantastic to work with. I have a few PJ friends and they are great to know.
SERE (Pronounced: S’air)
I added this as it’s often associated with Military and Combat Search and Rescue. It is a part of the necessary skill sets required for military operations and CSAR missions. The US version of SERE stands for Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape. There is a UK version where SERE stands for Survive, Evade, Resist and Extract and is similar in its purpose. Some of both training programmes are private and not for public or civilian review.
It provides service members, (infantry, pilots, aircrew, intelligence operators) military civilians, and contractors with training in the Code of Conduct, survival skills, evading capture, recovery and dealing with captivity. It incorporates many disciplines from bush craft, field survival, special training in military operations to interrogation and what to do when captured by the enemy forces.
Confined Space Search and Rescue
Confined Search and Rescue is for subjects in small and narrow spaces such as well shafts, sometimes using rope, BA (Breathing Apparatus), etc. It is defined as a space that is large enough and so configured that a person can enter and perform assigned work, that has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (e.g., tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, and pits), and that is not designed for continuous human occupancy.
Disaster Search and Rescue
This is one of those terms which can mean several things.
It is often taken to mean USAR for collapsed buildings in urbanised areas as one often sees USAR teams responding to global disasters. More accurately – it is Search and Rescue in a response to a disaster which involves suffering people and huge area damage and inability to cope without assistance and coordinated effort, such as an earthquake, or flood or storm.
Deployment is usually in response to a request for International Assistance from the affected County’s Government or by bilateral arrangement. Rescuers should, as a minimum, be well versed in USAR (Urban Search & Rescue) which is often synonymous with Disaster SAR. In our case, ERT SAR Disaster Teams must also include several other adjuncts e.g. IHL (International Humanitarian Law), the OSLO Guidelines, Sphere, INSARAG, additional Medical Training, UN OSOCC, (On-Site Operations Coordination Centre), advanced rescue skills and fitness.
Dive Rescue
Underwater SAR using specialized equipment and techniques such as SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus.) and special signalling and communications whether ‘pull signals’ or electronic. There are many unique hazards associated with dive operations which include, but are not limited to, things like Drowning, Hypothermia, Barotraumas (decompression sickness, nitrogen narcosis, oxygen toxicity, etc.)
Typically training may include don / doff dry suit with full face or light helmet use, underwater communications equipment, deep diving, night/limited visibility, current, polluted water, team operations, leadership, lifting equipment, cave/cavern diving, tidal diving, surface supply diving, ice diving and include the use of underwater tools.
Dog SAR
See Canine SAR above.
Fire and Rescue
Rescue from fire with specialized equipment such as fire retardant clothes and breathing apparatus. Often called ‘Fire-Fighters’ these rescuers are trained and equipped to extinguish fires in all sorts of environments such as buildings like offices or homes but also cars and chemicals etc., They also usually train as a rescuer, to rescue people from car accidents, collapsed buildings and several other hazardous and complex situations.
Of the 3 main Emergency Services (Police, Fire and Ambulance) they are more the ones likely to provide a ‘Technical Rescue’ service and some services or brigades also specialise in additional unique rescue settings such as high angle rope rescue or USAR or water rescue, Ice rescue etc., Increasingly, many provide emergency medical services with several services in the UK having First Responder training.
In the USA I also saw Paramedic level fire-fighters and in Singapore the service was part of Civil Defence – which also had Paramedics and Nurses. I am also reliably informed by Robin Blandford of “Decisions for Heroes” that Dublin Fire Brigade in Ireland are unique that they are all EMT-B/EMT-P and do a mixed roster of ambulance, fire and dispatch.
Ground Search and Rescue (GSAR)
Searches for lost subjects on the ground, as opposed to air or water terrain (however, for some teams it may include ‘frozen water’ especially if the basis of their Ground SAR training is NFPA Wilderness SAR) and often 'near' water at awareness level but not "in" water. The conduct of a search and rescue operation to assist persons lost, stranded, trapped, or injured in an area on land, often other than mountainous or cavernous environments.
Training includes
- Mobilisation Methods,
- Kit And Equipment
- Clothing / Uniform
- PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)
- Some Wilderness Sar,
- Rope Rescue Methods,
- Navigation,
- Field Survival,
- Lost Person Behaviour,
- Search Methods
- Recognising Hazards, Etc.
It should also include searching in built up urbanised areas - such as towns and villages - and the working between the two. (Also known as ‘Urban Ground SAR.’)
Rescue work forms the basis of recovering a person/s to a place of safety and incorporates obvious medical stabilisation methods and treatments as first responders to get 'hands on' a lost or distressed casualty.
It may also include the use of specialist and technical adjuncts such as
- The Use of Search Dogs
- The Use of Mountain Bikes
- The Use of Horses
- The Use of NVGs (Night Visions Goggles) / Thermal Imaging, etc
- The Use of Search Dogs
- The Use of Mountain Bikes
- The Use of Horses
- The Use of NVGs (Night Visions Goggles) / Thermal Imaging, etc
Ice Rescue
SAR on and around the environment of ice – such as frozen lakes or alpine mountains. Much of the standard training starts with the familiarisation to the elements, the cold and the environment and then developing the necessary capabilities required for self-rescue on ice. These include how to roll, crawl, or swim away from an ice hole and using any personal ice rescue equipment used by the organization such as ice awls, crampons, and so forth.
Rescuers train to enter frozen lakes or ice holes and recover victims whilst practising practical methods of weight distribution and appropriate use of rope, equipment and extrication vehicles such as sleds or inflatable ice platforms. There are immediate and obvious concerns of cold related injuries, to the victims and the rescuers.
International Search and Rescue
Usually Search and Rescue overseas – requiring self sufficiency and knowledge of working within a coordinated effort or how to coordinate within an international relief environment. Often a part of the humanitarian response, responders should also study additional adjuncts like IHL (International Humanitarian Law) and UN INSASRAG. It is part of the rescue phase of the disaster management cycle and therefore again synonymous with Disaster SAR and sometimes also USAR. (See definition of ‘Disaster SAR.’)
Land Search and Rescue
See “Ground SAR” above. Searches for lost subjects on land, as opposed to air or water terrain etc. The National SAR Secretariat in Canada defines it as: “The conduct of a search and rescue operation to assist persons lost, stranded, trapped, or injured in an area on land. In northern areas, ground SAR also includes operations on frozen waters where “ground” approach is the most appropriate means of pursuing the incident.” Often synonymous with GSAR or Lowland SAR type training but in fairness all syllabus also varies ever so slightly.
Lowland Search and Rescue (UK)
Lowland SAR is often the term used in the UK as a reference to Search and Rescue Teams who are a part of the Association of Lowland Search and Rescue (ALSAR) in the UK – and therefore not Mountain or Cave Rescue. These teams develop ‘Search Technicians’ to respond in ‘flatter’ elevations like cities, towns or villages but not exclusively; may get called anywhere in their county to search for a missing person.
Marine SAR
Marine SAR is Search & Rescue from a Marine or water based environment. That often includes boats and water craft but even includes ground or even Air assets (like Helicopters and winch operators, rescue swimmers (ASTs or Aviation Survival Technicians) and so on. May also include ‘under’ water and therefore include divers and so forth.
Maritime SAR
Maritime SAR, as it implies is Search & Rescue from a Maritime environment including the sea and coastal plains and usually involves the Coastguard with other agencies. In the UK this function is part of the Maritime Coast Guard Agency and ably supported by other agencies like the Royal Navy or Royal Air Force from the military or even the NGO, the RNLI (Royal National Lifeboat Institution.)
Medical Rescue
Search and Rescue medics also need to be able to work in a disaster environment, not unlike battlefield or combat medics but in the theatre of a disaster. This includes things like, when recovering a casualty fallen down a cliff hanging from their harness for 2 hours to expect Orthostatic Shock. Or when recovering a non-breathing hypothermic drowning victim from the water to know of the Mammalian Dive Reflex. Or when victims pulled from compression under collapsed structures and debris – maybe watch out for Compartment Syndrome or Crush Injuries.
This is no different from Paramedics at a traffic accident who predict the very serious Aortic Dissection after knowing the blunt trauma and shear forces involved that could cause it and the shock that is witnessed at the scene. It may not be even thought of if the knowledge of a car accident wasn’t there. All require medical interventions and training at a higher and predictive level to aid and improve survival and recovery and often without the usual hospital and medical adjuncts normal present at the scene. These medical operators also need to be competent functioning members trained in operational SAR survival and rescue skills as well.
Mountain Search and Rescue
Mountain Search and Rescue refers to SAR activities that occur in a mountainous and wilderness type environment, although the term is often also used to apply to search and rescue in other high elevation and wilderness environments. May or may not have snow. Members are well trained to high standards and usually cross train in several tech rescue subjects including rope, for high angle rescue. There are Mountain Rescue teams and groups all over the world and usually members of a larger Mountain Rescue Council or Association. It is one of those disciplines which has civilian and military operators and also, internationally, has a paid and unpaid / volunteer members. The RAF in the UK also do Mountain Rescue
Mountain Bike Search & Rescue (MBSAR)
PHOTO MBSAR Instructors, Gary Brown and Amanda Regan, in a riding pair.
SAR using mountain bikes for deployment, transport and access. Some say this is not so much a form of Search and Rescue, as it is just a transport mode, like using a car to get from A to B, but other proponents argue it is a specific form of SAR Like 4X4 or helo SAR requiring specialized training and practice. Training includes cycling on the roadways in towns and villages to going off road and cycling in woods, fields and even down stairs.
My team ERT SAR trains to use Mountain Bikes as a part of Search / Hasty Teams, Reconnaissance, Incident Command Support and Medical Services.
I have also written a book and training course on MBSAR (Mountain Bike Search and Rescue) which includes some of the material in this book but a lot of material pertinent to MBSAR kit, equipment, bikes, formation riding, technical riding, search techniques, etc.
There is also a lot of dedicated information on this on the website www.MBSAR.com
Mounted Search & Rescue / Equine SAR
PHOTO: ERT SAR Commander, Virginia Foo after dismount during Mounted / Equine SAR Horse training.
“Mounted SAR” or “Equine SAR” as they are synonymously known is a relatively new form of SAR using horses and sometimes trained air scenting horses. The premise being that an air scenting horse has improved search capabilities in its ability to ‘air scent’ similar to a dog. Plus it can carry the SAR operator / rider faster and more efficiently on its back in rural / wilderness terrain as well as some urban areas.
Reconnaissance
A specialized (SAR) subject and one of the first stages of many rescues. Although not always considered a ‘type’ of SAR rather than a ‘component’ of it – true ‘recon’ skills are a discipline unto themselves. A good Hasty Team are sometimes able to perform “Recon” tasks on their ‘first’ time out. USAR Reccies do a ‘once round’ quickly. However, proper reconnaissance does usually follow a sequence and has protocols and key components and requires training and preparation to perform well. An ERT SAR reconnaissance pair or team that goes out to do a ‘reccie’ is more than a couple of members just going to “have a look” at the hot zone / area. They must carry out a formulised assessment and size-up and if required, perform certain duties on their initial survey whilst carrying essential kit or equipment..
Rope Rescue and Tech Rope Rescue
This refers to a system of rope rescue equipment and anchor systems intended for use in the rescue of a subject. It usually defines a “low angle” (slope), “high angle” (sheer drop like a cliff) or “unsteady” ground – like ice or rocky slopes. May also include other terrain and usage such a water rescues (swift water rescue). Rope rescue is one of those essential skills which seem to be present in almost all Tech Rescue subjects. That is one of the reasons that ropes and knots are such an invaluable skill and practised by all specialists.
High Angle SAR
PHOTO: Here I am pictured abseiling (or rappelling) the well known Canadian range known as "Rattlesnake point" in Ontario, Canada during SAR Tech exercises. Circa 1996.
Refers to an environment in which the load is predominately supported by the rope rescue system. (e.g. On a Steep 40° - 60 °or High 60° to vertical 90° terrain. You could use a two rope system with tandem prussic belay for safety. Rescuers tied into the system.) [1] There are many good examples in cities and in nature such as hanging from a bridge or on a vertical cliff.
Low Angle (Rope) SAR
Refers to an environment in which the load is predominately supported by itself and not the rope rescue system (e.g., flat land or mild sloping surface). It may be difficult to walk and slippery due to snow and ice or moving rocks and stones under foot. This includes hilly litter carries on uneven and rocky ground with unstable footing. Ropes may be useful to give additional stability and control and whilst it is inherently risky, as we have experienced in some heavy and tiring climbs with kit. It is usually less technical and less risky than full high angle.
Tech (Technical) Rescue
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Figure 16 Advanced Rescue Techniques of Canada Instructor Paul Sevcik with ERT SAR members. |
In the United States, technical rescues will often have multiple jurisdictions operating together to effect the rescue, and will often use the Incident Command System to manage the incident and resources at scene.
NFPA regulation 1006 and 1670 state that all 'rescuers' must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself during an extrication.
Therefore, in most all rescue environments, whether it is an EMS department or fire department that runs the rescue, the actual rescuers who cut the vehicle and run the extrication scene or perform any rescue such as rope, low angle, etc, are medical first responders, emergency medical technicians, or paramedics, as most every rescue has a patient involved.
Trench Rescue
Typically trenches are very unstable and dangerous to enter. Imagine a trench dug by workman who then gets accidentally trapped by earth as it moves and engulfs them.Rescues must be very careful not to unsettle the area more and perform good and appropriate shoring and lifting adjunct. Similarly with landslide in earthquakes – trench recue is hazardous.
It is often included in parts of USAR. Search and Rescue from earth excavation that is by definition which is (1) deeper than it is wide, & (2) less than 15’ wide (also narrow in relation to its length) excavation made below the surface of the earth.
Urban – Ground SAR (Search and Rescue)
Urban – Ground SAR is searching for and/or rescuing persons who have become lost of injured in an urban setting; in many cases, the victims are able to be specially categorised and behaviour predicted from groups like lost or missing children, despondent or suicidal people, lost hikers and walkers, and the elderly who have wandered away from their residences or nursing homes, etc.
It is often but not to be confused with the term URBAN SAR (see below). It should more be associated or related to Ground SAR, Lowland SAR and sometimes even some Mountain SAR.
Urban Search and Rescue (USAR)
USAR is Search and Rescue from collapsed structures whether from an earthquake, engineering accident or bomb or whatever. It is a complex form of technical rescue requiring many different tools and machinery skill sets and the ability to work within specialised teams in several areas of technical rescue like confined space, rope rescue, trench, use of dogs, etc., Shoring, breaching, braking, cutting, etc., as well as the use of specialist and technical Search capability and the use of USAR Dogs are familiar terms in the technical aspects of USAR mechanical skills.
Using the acronym R.E.P.E.A.T. as a mnemonic, USAR Operators and Technicians are taught to approach the situation in 6 stages and learn various building and construction methods and SOPs.
It is generally regarded as an essential subject for International and Disaster Response Teams and the team classifications are Light, Medium and Heavy Urban Search and Rescue. The gold standard for international response can be seen in the UN INSARAG document.
Vehicle & Machinery Rescue (and Auto-Extrication)
This is mostly extrication and rescue from cars, buses, trucks, lorries and machines etc. using equipment like spreaders, cutters, jaws of life and leavers, shoring, hydraulic jacks and pullies and cranes, etc.
It involves scene control, roadway working envirnments and size-up. Additionally stabilisation of vehicle, machinery, area, proper patient access / medical stabilization, disentanglement, patient packaging, and removal of the casualty.Water Rescue (Marine Rescue)
Search and Rescue activities involving water and often boats, rescue swimmers and even helicopters. A specialized form but a general term for most water SAR.
PHOTO: Former Naval Officer Richard Lawrence, Water Rescue Instructor Richard Harlington and Water Rescue Incident Commander Virginia Foo on operations. Richard and Virginia can also be Rescue Swimmers, so uniform slightly different.
In some cases it is limited to one form such as Swiftwater Rescue Teams or Underwater Dive Teams (often more for recovery than rescue but many are book on stand-by for hazardous events.) In others it is a generic term for all types of water rescue whether you are in a submarine or a PWC (Personal water Craft or Sea-Doo).There are many forms of water rescue. ERT SAR has a very active Marine Unit and has the capability to perform many forms of water search and rescue. In the UK – we have especially been deployed by the Police to assist in Water Searches and by the Fire & Rescue Service for emergency rescues (like during the floods.)
Our International Disaster Response teams also train to use of Water Rescue Coordination and Response techniques for International Deployments. Such was the case in the tsunami response in Sri Lanka where our team deployed search and rescue craft with the local Police Service near Galle.
Water Rescue and Flood Response teams have proven needs in the UK and abroad and it take a lot more than a few benevolent volunteers or emergency service personnel with lifejackets and a dingy or zodiac inflatable boat to perform water rescues.
PHOTO: Again, like many organisations in the UK – 20 members of our marine we deployed for a week with Oxfordshire Fire and Rescue during the Floods of July 2007. We are a DEFRA listed asset by the UK Government.
Regular training and team competence is essential so we use national and international standardised training wherever possible for Coxing, Rescue Swimming, Lifesaving, Swiftwater Rescue Operations, etc.,
“Flowing Water” Rescue
“Flowing Water” is defined are water that is moving but less than 4 mph. (UK) Additional hazards exist to the victim and the rescuer than flat water alone but not considered as hazardous as full swiftwater. Additional training and equipment is required to operate in this environment.
Surf Rescue
Involves water rescues along the beaches and coastal areas and on the sea at the continental shelf. In the civilian world beaches have these ‘rescuers’ who are often known as “Lifeguards” or “Lifesavers.” They must pass stringent training and testing and naturally be strong swimmers.
Like many water rescue disciplines, they study hydrology and can identify undertows, different currents, tides, debris and contamination as well as learning medical lifesaving adjuncts like drowning, hypothermia, life support, C-Spine control, etc., Anywhere in the world where there is a populated beach, especially surfing hotspots, there are often Surf Rescue teams – including but not limited to the United Kingdom, The United States, Australia and so forth.Still / Flat water Rescue
This is water that is flat and unbroken. Lakes often have water like this. Very slow moving rivers too. Also, swimming pools, also have still / flat water and standard water rescue and lifesaving skills apply.
Ocean Rescue
Ocean Rescue is often associated with one of two types of water Search and Rescue:
Surf Rescue or
True ‘Blue Water’ Sea Rescue.
In the case of the former – look above at ‘Surf Rescue’ above. But if it’s the latter, then think of the movie “The Guardian”, with Kevin Costner and Ashton Kutcher.(I know it’s Hollywood and not the real thing you get the gist of it…)
…as that refers to SAR activities with boats, ships, submarines, rescue swimmers, helicopters etc. often by the Navy or Coastguard but I have seen other organisations – especially specialist military units – train and deploy in such environments. Also operates in many same environments as ‘Maritime’ SAR – mentioned earlier.
Again a very highly specialized form of Search and Rescue which requires the use of special training and equipment and an affinity for operating in the air or water!
Swift Water Rescue
This technically has several definitions but is ostensibly fast, even extreme fast and dangerous, moving water. The International White Water Scale is often used to define the types of swift water. However, some NFPA exponents say water moving at a rate greater than 1 knot (1.15 mph) / but more say just “White-water.” In the UK the general standard is water that is moving at a rate greater than 4 mph.
This is usually very hazardous and rescue should only be attempted by specially trained teams of Swiftwater Rescuers. Hazards to both victim and rescuer include, but are not limited to learning terminology and behaviour of holes, strainers, hydraulics, low head dams, debris, cold water, currents, undercuts, backwash, outwash, water contamination and water obstructions. Tactical, defensive and aggressive swimming is taught to help perform rescues but also to protect the rescuer if they have deployed into the water (as a last resort) and become compromised by the hazardous environment.
Wilderness Search and Rescue
This is Search and Rescue in the wilderness and rural environments – such as mountains, dessert, forest, woods and fields and away from urban towns, villages and city civilization.
PHOTO Paramedic and ERT SAR Member, Paul Giles, briefs a GSAR (Ground Search and Rescue Search) deployment in Oxfordshire for the ERT SAR team there.
It is sometimes confused with ‘Wilderness Medicine’ which whilst many parallels exist – have two separate focuses being Wilderness and Medicine, respectively. (Wilderness Medics may form part of a Wilderness SAR team and trained to deal with medical emergencies that occur in remote locations.)
Like GSAR, it may also include the use of specialist and technical adjuncts such as
- The Use of Search Dogs
- The Use of Mountain Bikes
- The Use of Horses
- The Use of NVGs (Night Visions Goggles) / Thermal Imaging, etc